As the first truly global conflict, the First World War posed a unique challenge to empires. It required unprecedented efforts to mobilize not just armies but entire populations. Propaganda, though not a new phenomenon, reached new levels of sophistication, becoming a central political tool for all belligerent states. For the Ottoman Empire, too, propaganda was crucial to maintaining support for the war effort, and the government engaged in extensive efforts to shape public opinion, maintain morale, and mobilize both military and civilian support for the war effort, using various media, including newspapers, magazines, posters, postcards, and visual imagery, to reinforce its ideological and political messages.
In the Ottoman Empire, no specific state body was formally established for propaganda, unlike in some other belligerent nations. Instead, the Ministry of War and the General Staff took on the responsibility, with Enver Pasha, the Minister of War, playing a key role in coordinating propaganda efforts. One of the first steps was the imposition of stricter censorship regulations in 1914, aimed at controlling the flow of information and limiting opposition narratives. The Intelligence Office, while tasked with monitoring and censoring publications, had limited control over other institutions such as the Ministry of the Interior and the Committee of Union and Progress’ (CUP) Central Committee, which often operated with greater autonomy. Building on these censorship efforts, the government also engaged in active propaganda through various media channels.
Despite structural limitations, such as a high illiteracy rate and underdeveloped communication networks, the CUP effectively used various organizations to support wartime propaganda. Donanma Cemiyeti (Navy League) and Müdâfaa-i Milliye Cemiyeti (National Defense League) were both civilian groups with close ties to the CUP, playing vital roles in promoting the war effort. Osmanlı Genç Dernekleri (Ottoman Youth League), established in 1916, focused on preparing Ottoman youth for military service while also serving as an organ of propaganda to rally support for the war, particularly in rural areas.
Means of Propaganda
One of the primary means of spreading propaganda in the Ottoman Empire was through newspapers. By the time the war began, the Ministry of the Interior had planned to shut down all newspapers except the CUP’s semi-official publication, Tanin. However, this radical move was tempered by a compromise, allowing several other publications to continue, albeit with significant censorship. These newspapers were heavily influenced by German and Austrian sources, offering a one-sided, idealized version of the war that concealed Ottoman defeats and exaggerated victories. The press served as a tool not only to boost morale but also to justify the Empire’s decision to align with the Central Powers.
In addition to newspapers, journals like Harp Mecmuası (the official war magazine) and Donanma Mecmuası (the Navy League’s journal) played significant roles in disseminating nationalist and militaristic messages. These journals often included patriotic literature, military reports, and photographs to bolster the image of the Ottoman Empire as a powerful and capable force.
Published by the Ottoman military authorities, Harp Mecmuası served as a key instrument of wartime propaganda. It was designed to boost the morale of soldiers and civilians alike, portraying the war as a noble and necessary struggle. The journal combined textual narratives with powerful visual propaganda, including photographs, illustrations, and patriotic slogans, to reinforce the official discourse of war.
One of the key themes of Harp Mecmuası was the portrayal of the Ottoman army as heroic, disciplined, and capable. The publication frequently featured images of soldiers in well-organized formations, engaging in battle, or receiving care in military hospitals, all intended to reassure the public that the war effort was progressing successfully. Additionally, the magazine highlighted the unity of the empire’s diverse ethnic and religious groups, emphasizing the idea that all Ottomans, regardless of background, were fighting together against a common enemy.
Another influential journal was Donanma Mecmuası (The Navy Journal), which focused on maritime military affairs and naval achievements. This publication aimed to instill confidence in the empire’s naval capabilities and encourage public support for naval expansion. Donanma Mecmuası often featured articles on Ottoman naval victories, profiles of naval officers, and strategic discussions on maritime warfare, reinforcing the image of a strong and determined Ottoman fleet.
Beyond Harp Mecmuası and Donanma Mecmuası, other periodicals also played significant roles in wartime propaganda. Sebilürreşad, an Islamic nationalist publication, emphasized the religious dimension of the war, supporting the call for jihad and urging Muslims worldwide to resist Western imperialism. Tasvir-i Efkar and İkdam were prominent newspapers that disseminated government narratives, highlighting battlefield successes and minimizing setbacks. Meanwhile, Osmanlı Genç Dernekleri Mecmuası (the Ottoman Youth League Journal) focused on preparing young men for military service, underscoring the importance of physical fitness and the necessity of military participation.
Given the limitations of written communication due to illiteracy, oral propaganda became an essential tool. Religious leaders played a critical role, with imams delivering sermons urging Muslims to support the war effort. The National Defense League organized religious events, such as mevlids (religious ceremonies), to appeal to the public’s sense of duty. In addition, public speeches and conferences were held across the empire to rally support and raise awareness about the importance of the war effort.
The use of propaganda extended beyond journals to include leaflets and pamphlets. These materials were often distributed among soldiers, civilians, and even enemy forces to spread specific messages. Some leaflets aimed at boosting Ottoman morale, while others were designed to demoralize enemy troops by highlighting Ottoman victories or portraying the Central Powers as unbeatable. Leaflets were often dropped from aircraft over enemy positions or smuggled into Allied territories, making them an effective tool in psychological warfare.
Use of Art and Literature as a Propaganda Tool
During the war, the Ottoman Empire’s use of cinema as a propaganda tool lagged behind that of Western powers, though efforts were made. As the idea of film as a symbol of state power spread globally, the Ottomans recognized its potential for propaganda. Filmmakers were dispatched by the government to document battlefield scenes. While most of these films have been lost, they were instrumental in fostering patriotism and state support, often depicting prisoners of war and combat footage. The military played a central role in supplying film equipment and financing productions, using cinema both to inform the public about the war and to target specific social groups with propaganda, although Ottoman filmmaking remained underdeveloped compared to its Western counterparts. Much of the necessary equipment was imported from the West, and while Ottoman-produced military propaganda films are no longer available, it is known that the empire also supported German propaganda films as part of its broader wartime efforts.
Beyond cinema, photography played a crucial role in Ottoman propaganda, particularly through figures such as Sven Hansen, Theodor Weigard, and Palestinian photographer Khalil Raad. Raad, a dedicated supporter of the Ottoman cause aligned with Cemal Pasha, documented key wartime events, capturing street scenes, processions, and executions. During this period, the demand for both studio and portrait photography surged, as soldiers sought to preserve images of themselves before departing for the front. Backed by the state, Raad’s work served as a propaganda tool, even as it documented the war’s harsh realities.
Literature also played a significant role in Ottoman propaganda. During the Gallipoli Campaign, War Minister Enver Pasha’s literary council, along with various propaganda initiatives such as military medals, worked to boost morale. One notable example was Harp Mecmuası, which published a Çanakkale Gazeli (ghazal is a form of lyric poetry consisting of rhyming couplets and a repeating refrain) attributed to Sultan Mehmed Reşad, celebrating the Gallipoli victory. While debate persists over whether the Sultan personally authored the poem, it was widely circulated and reprinted in various publications, ensuring its reach across Ottoman society as a powerful propaganda tool.
Art, too, was utilized for propaganda purposes. Wartime artists were tasked not only with documenting history but also with reinforcing state narratives. However, the conflict reshaped artistic networks, as former centers of influence—such as Paris—became adversaries. Ottoman artists, who had once been part of the broader European art scene, had to seek new artistic hubs. Osmanlı Ressamlar Cemiyeti (Ottoman Painters’ Society) remained active during the war, featuring works by Turkish, Armenian, and Greek artists. However, state-sponsored exhibitions in locations such as Şişli in Istanbul, and Vienna exclusively showcased works by Turkish artists, projecting a distinctly nationalist message. The role of Ottoman artists in wartime propaganda remains debated, reflecting broader tensions in Ottoman identity and nationalism during the period.
Ideological Content of Wartime Propaganda
Propaganda in the Ottoman Empire during the First World War was rooted in two main ideological themes: nationalism and Islamism. Following the defeats in the Balkan Wars, the idea of Ottoman revival and national awakening became central to the narrative of war propaganda. Publications frequently emphasized that the survival of the Ottoman Empire depended on a national consciousness, which would unify the diverse populations within the empire under a common cause. The initial months of the war saw the rise of Pan-Islamism and Pan-Turkism as key elements of propaganda, but these ideologies had varying degrees of success.
The Ottoman Empire’s propaganda during the war had a strong religious dimension, in the form of Pan-Islamism, particularly in its efforts to mobilize support among Muslim populations. The empire, as the seat of the Caliphate, positioned the war as a struggle between Islam and the encroaching forces of Western imperialism. The declaration of jihad by Sultan Mehmed Reşad in 1914 was a key propaganda tool aimed at rallying not only Ottoman Muslims but also those living under British, French, and Russian rule. The call for jihad was propagated through religious sermons, pamphlets, and speeches, urging Muslims across the world to rise against the Allied powers.
Religious imagery and references were commonly used in propaganda materials to reinforce the spiritual legitimacy of the war. Depictions of soldiers praying before battle, verses from the Quran, and symbolic representations of divine support for the Ottoman cause were prevalent in posters and periodicals. Clerics played an active role in disseminating these messages, emphasizing that fighting for the empire was equivalent to fulfilling a religious duty. However, at the end of the day, the Pan-Islamist appeal largely failed, as the broader Muslim world did not respond as hoped, and the loyalty of non-Turkish Muslim populations, especially in the Arab regions, was questioned after the outbreak of the Arab Revolt in 1916.
Nationalist themes were also prominent in Ottoman wartime propaganda. The government sought to foster a sense of Ottoman patriotism that transcended ethnic and sectarian divisions. By emphasizing the unity of Turks, Arabs, Kurds, and other groups under the Ottoman banner, the state attempted to counteract nationalist separatist movements that had begun to emerge in the years leading up to the war. Additionally, propaganda emphasized historical narratives of past Ottoman military triumphs, linking the present war effort to the glories of the empire’s past. Symbols of Ottoman grandeur, such as references to the conquests of Mehmed the Conqueror or the victories of Suleyman the Magnificent, were employed to inspire confidence in the empire’s resilience and strength. Furthermore, the government utilized poetry, folk songs, and patriotic speeches to instill a sense of duty and loyalty among the population, reinforcing the idea that defending the empire was both a national and religious obligation.
The Ottoman government’s propaganda efforts were primarily aimed at three key social groups: soldiers on the front lines, young men of conscription age, and women on the home front. Soldiers were targeted through publications like Harp Mecmuası, which were distributed regularly to boost morale and remind them of the religious and patriotic duty of fighting for the empire. The concept of martyrdom was central to motivating soldiers, with stories of heroic sacrifices portrayed in publications, which celebrated the ultimate sacrifice for the homeland.
For young men, the Youth League and other organizations emphasized the importance of military service, portraying it as both a duty and an honor. The figure of Mehmetçik (Little Mehmet), a symbol of the ideal Turkish soldier, was heavily promoted to encourage young men to enlist and serve the empire. Women, who were left behind as breadwinners due to the conscription of their male relatives, were also a major target for propaganda. The CUP encouraged women to support the war effort by urging their sons, husbands, and brothers to fight. Women’s involvement in organizations like Asker Ailelerine Yardımcı Hanımlar Cemiyeti (Ladies’ Society to Assist Soldiers’ Families) played a crucial role in maintaining the war effort on the home front.
Ottoman propaganda employed a range of visual and rhetorical strategies to influence public perception. Posters, postcards, and magazine covers often depicted idealized images of soldiers, war heroes, and the ruling elite. These images reinforced the idea of a strong and resilient Ottoman military, despite the numerous setbacks the empire faced on the battlefield. One notable example was the frequent depiction of Ottoman soldiers in heroic poses, standing steadfast against foreign invaders, often accompanied by nationalistic slogans such as “For the Homeland and the Sultan!” or “Victory Belongs to the Faithful!”
The Ottomans in German Propaganda
Germany, as the Ottoman Empire’s primary ally during the First World War, actively incorporated Ottoman imagery and themes into its own propaganda efforts. The Germans sought to portray the Ottomans as an indispensable partner in the Central Powers’ struggle against the Allied forces, leveraging religious, anti-colonial, and military narratives to rally support both domestically and abroad.
A key focus of German propaganda was the Islamic dimension of the war, particularly in its outreach to Muslim populations under British, French, and Russian rule. Recognizing the symbolic power of the Ottoman Sultan-Caliph, Germany worked closely with Ottoman authorities to frame the war as a religious struggle against the colonial oppressors of Muslim lands. This was especially evident in the use of pamphlets, posters, and newspapers distributed across North Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. These materials depicted the Sultan-Caliph as the rightful leader of the Muslim world and called upon the faithful to rise against the Allied powers.
One of the most significant initiatives was the Kaiser’s Jihad (or ‘Jihad Made in Germany’), which involved direct appeals to Muslim populations to support the Central Powers. Following the Ottoman declaration of jihad against the Entente powers in November 1914, German and Ottoman agents worked to spread the message of anti-colonial resistance. For example, German intelligence officers such as Max von Oppenheim played a key role in orchestrating propaganda campaigns targeting Muslim subjects in British India, Egypt, and French North Africa. His extensive reports and memoranda emphasized the potential for a large-scale Muslim uprising against the Allied colonial empires, an idea that was energetically promoted through printed materials and speeches.
Propaganda films also played an important role. German wartime cinema often showcased Ottoman military victories, particularly the defense of Gallipoli, to inspire confidence in the alliance and to emphasize the strength of the Ottoman military. Cinematographic works produced in these years presented visual narratives of the Ottoman call to jihad and depicted Muslims rallying against colonial rule. These efforts sought to inspire both German audiences and Muslim communities worldwide, reinforcing the image of a powerful, united Central Powers front.
Another striking example of German-Ottoman collaboration in propaganda was the Halbmondlager (Half Moon Camp) in Wünsdorf, Germany. This special prisoner-of-war camp housed Muslim soldiers captured from British and French colonial forces, particularly from India, Algeria, and Tunisia. Unlike typical POW camps, Halbmondlager was designed to win over these prisoners by providing religious accommodations, including halal food, prayer spaces, and visits from Ottoman dignitaries. German and Ottoman authorities sought to convince the prisoners to defect and fight for the Central Powers. The camp also had a specially constructed mosque, the first in Germany, further underscoring the German attempt to present itself as a friend of Islam. Some Indian Muslim prisoners joined the German volunteer corps and participated in special operations against the British in the Middle East, though overall recruitment success was limited due to skepticism among the captives.
In addition to targeting colonial troops, German propaganda sought to influence the broader Muslim world. The Germans established radio broadcasts in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish to spread messages of Islamic unity against Western imperialism. Newspapers such as El-Dschihad, printed in multiple languages, were distributed across the Ottoman Empire and beyond, featuring articles that condemned British and French colonial rule and praised the joint German-Ottoman war effort.
German agents were also active in Afghanistan and Persia, where they attempted to incite local rulers to challenge British and Russian influence. The Niedermayer-Hentig Expedition (1915-1916) is one such example, in which German and Ottoman emissaries traveled to Kabul to persuade the Afghan Emir to join the war against the British. While the mission ultimately failed to achieve its goal, it demonstrated the lengths to which Germany and the Ottoman Empire collaborated in their propaganda and strategic efforts.
Overall, German propaganda efforts that incorporated Ottoman themes were ambitious and multifaceted, ranging from printed materials and films to psychological operations in POW camps and covert missions in Muslim-majority regions. Although the practical impact of these campaigns varied, they highlight the depth of German-Ottoman wartime cooperation and the strategic importance of the Islamic world in Germany’s broader geopolitical vision during the First World War.
In sum, Ottoman wartime propaganda was a strategic tool aimed at rallying domestic support, bolstering morale, and countering enemy narratives. While it successfully mobilized segments of the population and reinforced the state’s ideological objectives, its effectiveness was limited by logistical constraints, ethnic and religious divisions, and the growing disillusionment with the war effort. The empire’s diverse population often reacted differently to propaganda efforts, and the increasing hardships of war weakened its impact. Ultimately, the challenges of sustaining a unified national narrative in a multiethnic empire, coupled with military setbacks, diminished the long-term effectiveness of Ottoman propaganda. Nonetheless, these efforts provide valuable insights into the state’s attempt to shape public opinion in a time of crisis.
PAGE LAST UPDATED ON 30 MARCH 2025